Soviet Union Private Enterprises and Economics

Soviet Union Private Enterprises and Economics When we talk about the Soviet Union, many of us imagine a largely monolithic structure, in which most of the processes were controlled from the centre, with very little initiative from the side of common people. This stereotype is especially strong regarding the economy. After all, it was officially called â€Å"planned,† which suggested that all production was owned and regulated by the state. However, it may come as a surprise that during the first half of the USSR’s life, private enterprise played a large role in everyday life of Soviet citizens. Furthermore, during the birth and development of Soviet Union, non-government owned companies completely legally produced a large variety of consumer goods. Most of these were small-size individual entrepreneurships and cooperatives, as opposed to large industrial complexes operated by the state. That small-scale private production supported the government-owned heavy industry, and was largely beneficial for the country and the people of USSR. It provided many goods and services to the people which the state-owned companies couldn’t provide. Surprisingly, private entrepreneurship has always been a part of Soviet economy, and furthermore, it provided a substantial part of foodstuffs and consumer goods to the society. The first topic to be discussed is the period that begins at the end of the civil war, when the Soviet system was finally dominant and its leaders had to commence post-war restoration. The economy of this period was largely characterized by the NEP – New Economic Policy. It primarily influenced agriculture, replacing â€Å"War Communism,† which involved direct food requisitioning, with food tax. Moreover, individuals were allowed to operate small private companies, while heavy industry and financial institutions remained under the state rule. The state economy, guided by the directive principles of War Communism, was unable to meet the demand for goods, especially agricultural ones, which was proven by the famine of 1921, during which six million people died. As a result, food requisitioning ended, and private business had to be allowed, which helped to alleviate economic hardship for many people. An objection may be raised that the policy was highly controversial both with the people and the government, and that it met resistance in higher circles. Furthermore, it gave birth to a new class of nouveau-riche â€Å"nepmen,† owners of small companies, who were seen by most people as little more than capitalists against whom they have been fighting all that time. The Party was indeed discontent with the development, seeing it as an abandonment of the principles of Socialism – according to the History Learning Site (2014), not only it meant abandoning planned economy, it also presented a threat of eventual restoration of full-scale capitalism (par. 9, 10). However, the argument here is not whether the policy corresponded with the ideological principles, but whether it was efficient or not. And the answer here is definitely yes – the NEP was very successful, allowing agriculture to restore itself to 75% of the pre-revolution level and staving off the fear of famine. It also contributed to the development of the light industry, stimu lating the demand for consumer goods (par. 12). This shows that during that period, private production contributed significantly to the wellbeing of population. Lenin has famously said on NEP â€Å"we are taking one step backwards to later take two steps forward,† and called War Communism â€Å"a grievous error,† which shows that he could modify the theory based on real-world experience, and understood the necessity of having private production, even if it was small-scale. The next stage went on from 1930 to 1960, and encompassed industrialization, Second World War, and postwar restoration. While NEP was cancelled, it did not mean that private initiative was restricted. Surprisingly, Stalin allowed much leeway for independent producers – many of them existed in a â€Å"gray area†, viewed with suspicion by authorities, but not restricted. The manufacturing and service sector remained relatively free, and people were allowed to have their own plots of land to grow food on, which they later would sell on peasants’ markets. According to Jan S. Prybyla (1961), â€Å"In 1956 the individual plots accounted for 67% of the gross output of potatoes, 87% of the output of eggs, 57% of the milk production, 55% of the output of meat, and about 42% of the production of vegetables.†(p. 218) And according to Frederick A. Leedy (1957), in 1954 independent cooperatives â€Å"manufactured 35% of furniture, 56% of iron dishes, 22% of metal beds , 45% of primus stoves, and 31% of felt boots. (p. 1067) Small businesses, such as barbershops and seamstresses, were also legal, as well as cooperatively-owned larger companies, which provided the majority of consumer goods, such as furniture and clothes. Julie Hessler (1998) asserts that many cooperatives were in fact covers for private entrepreneurs, who made massive profits from the activities. In 1948, most of them were arrested, or had their licenses revoked, however. (p. 539) Despite that, during Stalin’s era, independent production and trade were strongly developed, and Soviet people â€Å"spent between one-third and one-half of their incomes on the legal free market in all but few years of Stalin’s rule.† (p. 516) Even during the war that practice continued, with local authorities largely tolerating small-scale trade. (p. 523) This proves that, during this stage, independent production and free trade did play a large role in the lives of Soviet citizens . It can be argued, however, that the contribution of private producers to the economy was very small, and did not influence it in any significant way. After all, the individual producers constituted a very small share of total labour force – 1-2 million out of 60-80 million. (Leedy, p. 1066) This, however, ignores the fact that in regard to consumer goods and foodstuffs, independent producers accounted for a large share of production – from 22% to as high as 87%, as stated earlier. Possible explanation for this is that most people employed by the government worked in heavy industry sector, while in the light industry sector, share of independent producers was higher. Thus, private production did have significant influence on the economy. The third stage, however, which started from the 1960s, was characterized by the restriction of almost all private initiative, and nationalization of all non-government companies and land. That, in turn, gave birth to a widespread deficit of consumer goods, stagnation of the system, which could not develop without initiative, rising discontent, and, eventually, collapse. However, just because private enterprise was outlawed, doesn’t mean that it disappeared. Because state-owned companies produced consumer goods in insufficient quantity and inferior quality, people started looking for foreign goods to satisfy their needs. That period was characterized by increasing size of black and gray economy, with people semi-legally or illegally trying to acquire goods which they couldn’t find in stores. Eventually, as deficit for consumer goods became more prevalent, black market and informal economy have turned into a daily feature of Soviet life. At that point, a counterargument may be raised that the deficit was caused primarily by technological development and by increasing demand for more sophisticated goods, and not by restriction of private entrepreneurship. As standards of living increased, along with technology level, people started demanding more advanced goods in large amounts, which the economy couldn’t have provided even if private production had been left unrestricted. However, it doesn’t explain the deficit for foodstuffs, or for basic goods, such as furniture and clothing, from one-third to one-half of which were provided by independent producers in the 50s with no noticeable deficit (Leedy, p. 1067). Thus, it still means that Soviet economy of that period was inadequate to the task of providing basic consumer goods that were demanded. So naturally, people turned to black market. Due to its secretive nature, it is almost impossible to accurately calculate its penetration, and only a rough approximation can be given. As Lucille Be audry and Luc Duhamel explain (1984), by the 80s the black market has â€Å"completely integrated in Soviet system,† and it would not have been possible to curb it except by liberalizing the economy (p. 102). This proves that, even when the economy was under total control of the State, people still participated massively in independent trade. But the restriction of commerce had even further-reaching consequences. The shadow economy which arose as a result of private entrepreneurship being made illegal carried numerous problems: not only was it hard to combat, but it also degraded the respect for the system by common people, who had to engage in illegal activities just to satisfy their basic necessities. That, in turn, was one of the reasons that led to the eventual collapse of Soviet Union and replacement of its state-controlled economy by a free-market one. The first periods in life of Soviet Union were more repressive, but also, paradoxically, more economically free. Small-scale private production, like aforementioned barbershops and personal plots of land, allowed the system to develop more vigorously than it would have been possible otherwise. Along with political liberalization in the 50s, the economy was centralized, which eventually caused its demise. While this is an unexpected development, it also provides something to think about. On one hand, on the basis of these findings, it can be argued that market is important for any country, even the ones with planned economy, and that it is simply impossible to regulate all production from one center. Fate of other socialist countries seems to reinforce that conclusion – especially China, which, since the adoption of free market, demonstrates incredible rates of growth. Even in North Korea, the most restrictive country in the world, the government tolerates small-scale trade and private production. But on the other hand, it tells us something about effectiveness of government control in certain spheres of economy. After all, Soviet heavy industry was remarkably successful, and large-scale projects, such as nuclear power plants, hydroelectric stations, and spaceports, were built by the state. It should be noted that nuclear energetics and space exploration are the spheres which are still predominantly under the control of governments, even in such economically liberalized countries as the United States. In any case, we should study the history of Soviet Union carefully and without any bias, if we want to understand its experience and apply that knowledge to our current problems. Sources: Jan S. Prybyla, â€Å"Private Enterprise in Soviet Union†. South African Journal of Economics, Volume 29, Issue 3, page 218, September 1961. New Economic Policy. HistoryLearningSite.co.uk. 2014. Web. Lucille Beaudry, Luc Duhamel, â€Å"The Causes of the Black Market Phenomenon in the U.S.S.R.†. Studies in Political Economy, Volume 13, page 102, 1984. Julie Hessler, â€Å"A Postwar Perestroika? Toward a History of Private Enterprise in the USSR†. Slavic Review, Vol. 57, No. 3, autumn 1998. Frederick A. Leedy, â€Å"Producers’ cooperatives in the Soviet Union†. Monthly Labor Review, Vol. 80, No. 9, September 1957.

Political Philosophy and Machiavelli Essay

Niccolo Machiavelli’s essay, â€Å"The Qualities of the Prince† is a very interesting piece of literary work that has an atypical way of depicting the qualities of a successful leader. Machiavelli developed a way of thinking that changes the human perspective on what a quality leader is made of. He took what people were afraid to say aloud and voiced it in a way that almost unraveled the truth about what people in power were really like. Machiavelli comes to a junction is his essay when he writes; â€Å"being disarmed makes you despised†. When Machiavelli says this he means to say that in order for someone to appear powerful they must be armed and physically capable of warfare. In his essay he very clearly portrays that in order for someone to have control and ultimate power, they must have the means to start a war. Machiavelli makes the point in his essay that people are ultimately naà ¯ve and easily manipulated and that in order to be an exceptional leader, you must be unafraid to do what’s necessary to survive the political wilderness. This is not to say that you should go about your power abusing it because you have the power to, but rather use it in situations when it is necessary. He also says that it is more important to be feared then loved but not too feared because then people may get the idea to over throw you. I found this essay quite radical but very interesting. I think that although I wish it weren’t true, that most politicians today have this sort of mindset. I believe this piece of literary work to be the most contradicting of Machiavelli’s time.

Contemporary Issues in Food and Nutrition for Adolescents Essay

Contemporary Issues in Food and Nutrition for Adolescents The importance of establishing health promoting practices during childhood and adolescence has long been recognized by nutritionists and other health professionals. The purpose of this paper is to investigate further the issues relating to adolescents’ diets and contributing factors. Contributing factors include the increase of fast food consumption, unconventional meal patterns and lack of exercise. During adolescence, the influences on eating habits are numerous. The growing independence of adolescents, increased participation in social life and a generally busy schedule of activities have a great impact on food intake.? In the September 2007 issue of ‘Health Promotion International’, a survey of 18,486 secondary school students at 322 schools across all Australian states (except Western Australia) has found that a significant proportion of students fall short of current, national dietary and physical activity recommendations for teenagers. A new study suggests that as teens enter adulthood, they are more likely to skip meals, resulting in a very unconventional meal pattern. Breakfast is frequently neglected and omitted more often by teenagers as they enter high school as they see it as an unnecessary hassle. These diets are likely to be bizarre and unbalanced. Though appetite is great, meal times tend to be irregular due to pre-occupation with school, other social activities or even a part time job. Therefore snacking in between meals is common. Skipping breakfast, for example, can lead to greater levels of hunger later in the day, causing overeating, or the choosing of heavy foods that fill you up faster, but may lack nutritional values. For teenage girls, lunch is usually skipped as a way of controlling weight. As adolescents go through puberty, they are bound to feel more pressured by their peers about the shape and size of their body, sexual development, and their general appearance. Due to this pressure, they are more likely to be self-conscious, resulting in unstable diets. These diets are usually also caused by the increasing amount of junk food consumption. The increase in junk food consumption is an important factor in a teen’s diet. This could be due to the increased independence and responsibility for food preparation that adolescents face during this developmental transition. Fast food, such as McDonalds, is a quick, easy and tasty option for aging adolescents who may have a busy day-to-day schedule and who may be used to relying on parents to prepare their meals. Also published in the September issue of Health Promotion International, a survey indicates that secondary school students between the ages of 12 and 17 are consuming far too much junk food and not enough vegetables and fruit. The survey found that only 20% of students were meeting the daily requirement of four serves of vegetables while 39% were eating the recommended three daily serves of fruit. â€Å"Our survey found consumption of unhealthy/non-core foods was high, with 46% of students having fast food meals at least twice a week, 51% eating snack foods four or more times per week, and 44% having high-energy drinks four or more times per week,† states Dr Victoria White, from the Centre of Behavioural Research in Victoria. The survey findings also highlight the need for secondary students to spend more time being physically active and less time in front of the television and computer. The problem of childhood obesity has recently skyrocketed, mainly in the Western nations. Established in an online article on the website ‘For Parents, By Parents’, approximately 16-33% of children and teens are considered obese. While obesity is one of the easiest medical conditions to diagnosis, it can be one of the most difficult to treat. The same online article also states that poor diet and lack of exercise results in over 300,000 deaths every year. â€Å"We found that only 14% of students engaged in recommended levels of physical activity and about 70% exceeded recommended levels of sedentary behaviour,† Dr Victoria White once again states. Current recommendations state teenagers should do at least 60 minutes of moderate intensity physical activity every day and spend no more than 2 hours per day using electronic media for entertainment. Unhealthy weight increases during adolescence have been associated with fasting insulin, increased levels of cholesterol and risk factors for heart disease and systolic blood pressure in young adulthood. Since adolescent obesity is a significant predictor of overweight status in adulthood, it is important to identify dietary behaviours early on that are associated with unhealthy weight gain in order to create effective interventions. It has been investigated that the three of the largest factors in adolescents’ diets include their unconventional meal pattern, increasing of junk food consumption and lack of exercise. The increased snack food intake and lack of required exercise result in a very disproportioned and unbalanced diet, which eventually leads to other fatal diseases such as risk of heart failure. Therefore, adolescents’ diet should be observed carefully to avoid an unhealthy epidemic.

Bus Transport Project In Malaysia - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 18 Words: 5314 Downloads: 3 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Statistics Essay Did you like this example? 1.1 Background Transportation is a system that considers the complex relationships between networks, the demand and space. Transit on the other hand is dominantly an urban transportation mode. Since transit is a shared public service, it potentially benefits from economies of agglomeration related to high densities and from economies of scale related to high mobility demands. Mass bus transit is highly suitable for any university campus, which experiences a high volume of traffic flow during a fixed time frame. Space on the other hand is limited due to its characteristic built environment. ( Reshmi Mukherjee, 2003) Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Bus Transport Project In Malaysia" essay for you Create order Transport or transportation is the movement of people and goods from one location to another. Modes of transport include air, rail, road, water, cable, pipeline, and space. The field can be divided into infrastructure, vehicles, and operations. Passenger transport may be public, where operators provide scheduled services, or private. Freight transport has become focused on containerization, although bulk transport is used for large volumes of durable items. Transport plays an important part in economic growth and globalization, but most types cause air pollution and use large amounts of land. While it is heavily subsidized by governments, good planning of transport is essential to make traffic flow, and restrain urban sprawl. (Wikipedia, 2011) Public transportation can be divided into infrastructure, vehicles, and operations. In infrastructure it involve on the fixed installations necessary for transport, including roads, railways, airways, waterways, canals and pipelines or terminals such as airports, railway stations, bus stations, bus stops and seaports. Vehicles traveling on the network include automobiles, bicycles, buses, trains, people and aircraft. Operations deal with the way the vehicles are operated, and the procedures set for this purpose including the financing, legalities and policies (Wikipedia, 2011). An intercity bus is a bus that carries passengers significant distances between different cities, towns, or other populated areas. Unlike a municipal bus, which has frequent stops throughout a city or town, an intercity bus generally has a single stop at a centralized location within the city, and travels long distances without stopping at all. Intercity buses exist all over the world that are operated by government or private industry, for profit and not for profit. (Wikipedia, 2011). Infrastructure particularly bus stop is one of the important fixed installation that need to take into account. The bus stop is also the most prominent icon of public transit. The locations, functionality, safety, and visual appearance of stops are critical to attracting and maintaining transit riders in any location In most urban areas, public transportation service is provided by fixed-route bus systems. Bus stops are the point of transition where an enquiry starts to become a journey. It is important to consider passenger characteristics (eg access to the bus stop), route characteristics (eg frequency of buses), service identity or the roading environment when determining the location of individual bus stops. The bus stop is also the first point of contact between the passenger and the bus service. The spacing, location, design, and operation of bus stops significantly influence transit system performance and customer satisfaction. A bus stop is a designated place where buses stop for passengers to board or leave a bus. These are normally positioned on the highway and are distinct from off-highway facilities such as bus stations. The construction of bus stops tends to reflect the level of usage. Stops at busy locations may have shelters, seating and possibly electronic passenger information systems; less busy stops may use a simple pole and flag to mark the location and customary stops have no specific infrastructure being known by their description. Bus stops may be clustered together into transport hubs allowing interchange between routes from nearby stops and with other public transport modes. (Wikipedia, 2011). 1.2 Problem of Statement Bus is a major demand in Malaysia as public intercity transit. Besides the fees is in low rate it also serve a better public transportation if it has to do with plenty numbers of passengers. Since the bus stop is the most prominent icon of public transit, the location, functionality, safety, and visual appearance of stops are critical to attracting and maintaining transit riders in any location. Present bus stops in Malaysia certainly are inconveniently located. GIS is being used to locate suitable location for the bus stops. As the density of passenger and land use pattern in Shah Alam has changed drastically it is upmost that new bus locations need to be identified. 1.3 Aim The aim of this case study is to locate the best locations for bus stops within the city of Shah Alam using Geographic Information System (GIS). Comparison of the existing and the planned bus stops will be carry out. 1.4 Objectives To compare the criteria of locating bus stop between the existing policy and my observation and to suggest an appropriate location to locate bus stop base on criteria: Standard spacing between bus stop Density of population Non-Resident of UiTMà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s students Nearby attractions and major people generators: Schools / educational premises Hospitals Residential Recreational park Shopping area 1.5 Limitations In this thesis, software used is ArcGIS version 9.3 Use the Network Analysis Extension tools options Focused only on the bus transportation provide by the RapidKL company The test network dataset is Section 7, Shah Alam road network 1.6 Assumption In this thesis, there are several assumption made. The bus stops served in transportation industry in Malaysia are certainly not consistently located. This study assumes that bus is the major transportation system used in Shah Alam and there is facilities transportation problem in bus transportation industries at Shah Alam area especially bus stops. The bus stop locations are not systematically located. 1.7 Study Area Shah Alam is the location for study area in this case study. It is because as we can see the major public transportation in Shah Alam is bus. This case study is more focus on students generators especially among UiTMà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s Non-resident students. From the demographic side, almost all the bus passengers are students. Most of student in UiTM Shah Alam use buses as their main transportation to go to classes. With the capacity of student, it makes the bus services route around the study area more frequently. In current situation, there are many bus stop location is inconveniently located. CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Introduction This chapter discusses and review current practices of transportation in Malaysia especially in infrastructure of transportation. The discussion start with an overview of transportation in Malaysia followed by category of transportation namely private and public. This discussion is focused on the specification of location of bus stop. Final section will elaborate about the ArcGIS buffering framework, network analysis and its capability and that maybe useful in this study. 2.2 Transportation in Malaysia Malaysia is served by an excellent transport system. Once you are in the country there is always transport available to you to even remote areas. Traveling by road in peninsula Malaysia is popular as it has well- developed network of roads.  There are various options available as to how you might wish to get to a destination.   In Sabah and Sarawak, it is recommended for traveling by four-wheel drive as on unpaved roads, and many remote areas can only be reached by air or river-boats. If you want to see clearly the countryside, traveling by rail is also highly recommended. 2.2.1 Transport Transport or transportation is the movement of people and goods from one to another location. There are many types of modes of transport include air, rail, road, water, cable, pipeline and space. The field can be divided into infrastructure, vehicles, and operations. (Wikipedia, 2011) Transport infrastructure consists of the fixed installations necessary for transport, and may be roads, railways, airways, waterways, canals and pipelines, and terminals such as airports, railway stations, bus stations, warehouses, trucking terminals, refueling depots (including fueling docks and fuel stations), and seaports. Terminals may be used both for interchange of passengers and cargo and for maintenance. Vehicles traveling on these networks may include automobiles, bicycles, buses, trains, trucks, people, helicopters and aircraft. In the transport industry, operations and ownership of infrastructure can be either public or private, depending on the country and mode. 2.2.2 Road A road is an identifiable route, way or path between two or more places. Roads are typically smoothed, paved, or otherwise prepared to allow easy travel; though they need not be, and historically many roads were simply recognizable routes without any formal construction or maintenance. In urban areas, roads may pass through a city or village and be named as streets, serving a dual function as urban space easement and route. The most common road vehicle is the automobile which is a wheeled passenger vehicle that carries its own motor. Other users of roads include buses, trucks, motorcycles, bicycles and pedestrians. As of 2002, there were 590 million automobiles worldwide. Buses allow for more efficient travel at the cost of reduced flexibility. (Wikipedia, 2011) 2.2.3 Buses Buses are an inexpensive way to travel in Malaysia. Most, if not all buses in Kuala Lumpur (KL) are air-conditioned but there are still non-air-conditioned buses in smaller towns around the country. Buses plying routes within towns and cities typically charge fares according to the distance covered while interstate buses have fixed rates.Most of areas in Malaysia are using buses as major transportation. Especially in area with major people generator such as in residential, educational, industrial and recreational area. The public bus service in Shah Alam is efficient and covers a wide range of routes, although steps are being taken to constantly improve the services. Strategic bus stops and stations offer passengers plenty of boarding options. Buses are in good condition and fully air-conditioned. Designated bus lanes also enable smooth scheduling of bus services for passengers ease. The bus routes also link to other transportation options like the Light Rail Transit (LRT) system, train station and taxi stands (Urban Transportation Department, 2008). Rapid KL as one of the bus company in Malaysia operates 134 routes in the Klang Valley including the suburban feeder service to complement the LRT systems. It has two central workshops and 13 bus depots spread across the Klang Valley and plans to gradually introduce more 15 minutes frequency throughout its system is also one of RAPID KLs goals. Today, 15 minutes frequency is operated only at 13 routes at high-density routes (RapidKL, 2008). 2.3 Transportation Facility 2.3.1 Bus Stop A bus stop is a designated place where buses stop for passengers to board or leave a bus. These are normally positioned on the highway and are distinct from off-highway facilities such as bus stations. The construction of bus stops tends to reflect the level of usage. Stops at busy locations may have shelters, seating and possibly electronic passenger information systems but there are also busy stops may use a simple pole and flag to mark the location and customary stops have no specific infrastructure being known by their description. Bus stops may be clustered together into transport hubs allowing interchange between routes from nearby stops and with other public transport modes. For operational purposes there are three main kinds of stops. First, scheduled stops, at which the bus should stop irrespective of demand. Second, request stops (or flag stop) where the vehicle will only stop on requested and hail and ride stops where a vehicle will stop anywhere along the designated section of road on request. Certain stops may be restricted to set-down only or pick-up only. Some stops may be designated as timing points and if the vehicle is ahead of schedule it will wait to ensure correct running to the timetable. In dense urban areas where bus volumes are high, skip-stops are sometimes used to increase efficiency and reduce delays at bus stops. Fare stages may also be defined by the location of certain stops in distance or zone based fare collection systems. (Wikipedia, 2011) Bus stops are placed in one of three locations: near-side (located immediately before an intersection); far-side (located immediately after an intersection); and mid-block (located between intersections). Each of these locations offers advantages to vehicle drivers and pedestrians. However, the final decision on bus stop locations dependent on ease of operation, transfer situations, space availability, and traffic volumes. Pace performs on-site evaluations of proposed bus stop to analyze operating conditions and identify appropriate bus stop locations. (Pace Development Guidelines, 1999) Near-side bus stop sign placement is generally 10 feet from the corner tangent point and 5 feet from the outer curb. However, site characteristics will ultimately dictate exact sign location. Where site limitations exist, the sign should be setback a minimum of 2 feet. Near-side locations offer a number of features to pedestrians and vehicle drivers. This location allows pedestrians to cross in front of the bus. This location also allows transit users to load and alight from buses close to crosswalks and intersections, thereby minimizing, walking distances to connecting transit service. Far-side bus stop locations are recommended on routes in which buses make left turns at intersections. Once a bus negotiates a left turn, a far-side stop provides a more appropriate service point. Far-side stops also are recommended in locations where dedicated right turn lanes are present. Far-side stops may facilitate easier bus re-entry into traffic due to gaps created by intersection traffic signa ls. Another bus stop location is the mid-block stop. A mid-block location is generally less congested than an intersection. Bus turnouts are most effectively located in a mid-block bus stop zone. Mid block stops are applicable at T-intersections or locations generating a larger passenger volume. (Pace Development Guidelines, 1999) Bus stop is the first point of contact between the passenger and the bus service. The spacing, location, design, and operation of bus stops significantly influence transit system performance and customer satisfaction. (Texas Transportation Institute, 1996) Bus stops should be at safe locations, no more than 50 meters after a traffic light or road intersection. They should not be located on sloped surfaces which considered unsafe. (Higher Committee of Planning Cities 2000) Good pedestrian facilities often make the trip to stops more enjoyable, thus making it easier for people to choose both modes of transportation to go to work, shopping, or other activities. All transit facilities and the transportation routes that lead to them have needed to be safe, convenient, and accessible. If people do not feel safe or comfortable walking to stops, then they are likely to choose other modes of travel, such as a car. (A Gis Approach To Evaluate Bus Stop Accessibility, Giuseppe SALVO). Socioeconomic data is vital for determining locations for transit routes and facilities. Often, socioeconomic spatial data resides in a zonal layer that may cover a very large area. While socioeconomic data aggregated to these large zones are useful for regional analyses, they canà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢t support a analysis of accessibility to bus stops. (A Gis Approach To Evaluate Bus Stop Accessibility, Giuseppe SALVO). Since the bus stops would have been installed before many years, the then density of the passengers and land use pattern would have undergone a drastic change and the bus stops would not commensurate with these changes. Hence there is an increasing need for the bus stops to be rationalized. (Mr. G. Saravanan Mr. S. Suresh Immanuel, 2003) 2.4 GIS à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“a GIS is a system of hardware, software and procedures to facilitate the management, manipulation, analysis, modeling, representation and display of georeferenced data to solve complex problems regarding planning and management of resourcesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? (NCGIA, 1990). A geographic information system (GIS) is an information system that is designed to work with data referenced by spatial or geographic coordinates. In other words, a GIS is both a database system with specific capabilities for spatially reference data, as well as a set of operations for working with data. In a sense, a GIS may be thought of as a higher-order map. (Jeffrey Star and John Estes à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" 1990) GIS integrates hardware, software, and data for capturing, managing, analyzing, and displaying all forms of geographically referenced information. GIS technology allows us to view, query, and understand data in many ways. We will see the relationships, patterns, and trends in the form of GIS-based maps, reports, and charts. GIS helps us answer questions and solve problems. When viewed in the context of geography, our data is quickly understood and easily shared. GIS technology can be integrated into any enterprise information system framework. (ESRI, 2011). In broad terms, a Geographic Information System could be defined as a set of principles and techniques employed to achieve one (or both) of the following objectives: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Finding suitable locations that have the relevant attributes. For example, finding a suitable location where an airport, a commercial forest or a retail outlet can be established. This is usually achieved through the use of Boolean (logical) operations. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Querying the geographical attributes of a specified location. For example, examining the roads in a particular locality, to check road density or find the shortest path, and so on. This is often achieved by à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"clickingà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ onto the location or object of interest, and examining the contents of the database for that location or object. 2.4.1 GIS in Transportation GIS has been recognized for many years now as an invaluable tool for managing, planning, evaluating, and maintaining transportation systems. As the gateway to economic development and, subsequently, a healthy economy, transportation infrastructure represents one of the largest and most critical investments made in any nation, at whatever stage of development. Similarly, for many firms in the transportation industry, profitability and a strong competitive position depend on a safe and reliable system. Roads are the main arteries of a modern societyà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s infrastructure, contributing heavily to the distribution of goods and persons. GIS provides many helpful applications for ensuring a smooth transportation flow. Customer satisfaction, competitive position, timely response, effective deployment, and profitability are all positively affected (GISDATA Group, 2009). Being able to visualize your assets and the surrounding environment when you build, upgrade, or repair transportation infrastructure helps you prioritize your work and make the right decisions. A geographic information system (GIS) software platform will allow you to do all this and much more. With Esrià ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s GIS technology, you can build dynamic and rich mapping applications that will keep everyone from the project team and government officials to field staff and the public in the know. (ESRI, 2011). GIS contain data related to location points, lines (commonly roadway links and corridors), and polygons. Analysis tools that are part of GIS software packages can be used to relate these data. The use of GIS to manage data can simplify the analysis of transport systems and can enhance the decision-making process (Worldbank ). 2.4.2 The Importance of Geospatial Data The nature of any natural or economic activity with a spatial dimension cannot be properly understood without reference to its spatial qualities. Spatial data have two essential parts: location and attributes. A GIS requires location references. Typical location references are latitude and longitude and national grid references such as the National Grid. However, other geospatial codes can also be used to identify location, such as postcodes. Attributes. Any locality would have a number of characteristics or properties associated with it. These attributes are usually kept in tables, containing such information as vegetation types, population, annual income, and so on. GIS systems store and process data in two formats, vector and raster. In the vector data model, the world is represented as a mosaic of interconnecting lines and points representing the location and boundaries of geographical entities. In vector data models, the data are represented as: arcs (lines) polygons (traversed areas) points (labelled nodes) nodes (intersection points) 2.4.3 Existing GIS Based System A Spatial Locationà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å"Allocation GIS Framework for Managing Water Sources in a Savanna Nature Reserve. (Source: www.nceas.ucsb.edu) Associated with the establishment or removal of water sources in savanna ecosystems is the issue of the effects of such management actions on animal movement and habitat selection, longer term implications on population levels, and impacts of such change on habitat degradation and soil erosion. Extant metrics used to describe the spatial distribution of water sources on the landscape often fall short of providing source-specific information, making them hard to apply in small-scale management settings. Using the Klaserie Private Nature Reserve (KPNR) as a case study, comparison between of a: buffer framework which is to describing distances to water, a nearest neighbor framework, spatial locationà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å"allocation framework (SLAF) created in a geographic information system (GIS) These three frameworks can be combined into one GIS to demonstrate site-specific information on water source distribution, in addition to system-wide descriptions. The visually accessible quality of a GIS allows qualitative input from managers and property owners to achieve quantifiable management goals. The duality of database and visual representation provides a useful tool to assess the role of individual water sources and can easily be updated to reflect changes in their distribution. In this study, seasonal effects on the water source distribution are modeled first. Then two hypothetical management scenarios are modeled based on realistic management options for this reserve. For the first management scenario we map the resulting distribution when all artificially supplemented water sources are à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"turned onà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ in the dry season. Fig 1: Location of KNPR (Klaserie Private Nature Reserve) Water sources in this study include seasonal pans, artificial pans and catchment dams as point sources and two major river courses, the Klaserie and the Olifants, which have perennial segments in KPNR. Buffer framework For the buffer framework, the locations of all the water sources tabulated during the wet season were buffered in concentric 1 km rings and clipped to the reserve boundary to assess the area of the reserve at different distances to water (Fig. 2a); this process was repeated for the dry season water sources (Fig. 2b) and then for the two hypothetical management scenarios and the results tabulated for comparison. Fig 2(a): Buffer model showing distribution of distance to water classes during the KPNR wet season Fig. 2(b): Buffer model showing distribution of distance to water classes during the KPNR dry season. Nearest neighbour framework The locations of the wet and dry season water points were used to calculate the nearest distance to river sections and then to nearest water source. The nearest neighbour distance between two point water sources was calculated as a vector, by minimizing the results of a triangular matrix calculator for Euclidian distance in Microsoft Excel ©. The lesser of the distance to nearest river or nearest neighbour was taken as the nearest neighbour distance to water. Spatial locationà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å"allocation framework (SLAF) The simplest spatial representation of an unconstrained locationà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å"allocation model of supply points to demand regions uses the Dirichlet tessellation to generate Voronoi or Thiessen polygons (Okabe et al. 1992). A tessellation is essentially a mosaic, a tiling created in a geometric plane. This tessellation is created by the intersections of perpendicular bisectors between each point in a set. The three frameworks used to assess the change in distribution of water points in the reserve yielded generalizations, which are useful as descriptors of system change, but can be hard to translate directly into management action on specific water sources. The advantage of the SLAF over the two other frameworks is that the area of the polygon associated with each water source is visually Optimization of Bus stop locations using GIS as a tool for Chennai city- Acase study, R.Sankar, 2003 In a developing country like India every advancement depends upon the funds available. This influencing factor is considered as there is huge need of finance for the development of infrastructure such as laying of good, strong roads. The road grade is essential for having bus routes in a particular area. It is not possible to have bus stops in the interior where the grade is poorer. The density of population and the infrastructure go hand in hand, this is the reason for having many bus stops in close proximity in the main roads. While considering the financial status of the government it is also necessary to consider the status of the public. In a higher middle income, higher income groups the dependency on the public transit system is less making it less imperative to have more bus stops. Conversely the lower income group and the economically weaker section entirely depend upon the corporation buses for their transit. Finally the locations are graded based on the risk factors. The s ites selected should not be near the junctions. Dangerous turnings are avoided. Methodology Data collection is taking on the ground using GPS and the map of road network which include the position of each bus stop in term of coordinates. There are about 41 bus stops between Vadapalani and Besent nagar, which is the study area. There are about 21 roads in the selected route. The network map is digitized. Digitization is done manually using On-screen method. The errors in the original maps will be transferred and they are likely magnified when digitized using GIS. Here arcs and nodes are defined by the user. The projection used here is polyconic which is considered the best suited for India. Arc View and Arc Info are the softwares used for digitization, transformation/projection and analysis. Analysis Buffer analysis is made to determine the effected area. The minimum and maximum distances are given. Selected route in the network map which are given as buffer distances. If there is overlap in the buffers then a common point can be considered for the location of the stop such that there is no overlap. This point is selected considering other criteria also. Confluence of all parameters is essential before arriving into any decision. The similar way if the distance between two buffers are more this indicate that the area in the in between region is not properly served by any of the bus stops. In this case new bus stops can be created. Thus it is necessary to calculate based on all the parameters that none of the areas are under served or over served. The route analysis was made the impedance value and the speed is given based on the vehicular volume on each road. The bus stops can be minimized in roads where there the existing traffic is high, additional positioning of these stops would add up to the traffic congestion. The locations of important centers such as hospitals, schools etc are also estimated for their proximity to the stops using the route analysis module. The time gained due to the reduction of the stops vice versa is also projected by having each location as a node and by giving a positive or negative value for the calculation of impedance. The demographic characteristics are also computed. CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY 3.1 Introduction This chapter will explain the methodology adopted in this study. The explanation starts with the introduction of adopted method for literature review, the method for data acquisition and the type of data acquired, data preparation and processing and followed by performing data analysis and results documentation and recording methods. Project Planning Data Preparation and Processing Data Acquisition and type of Data acquired Analysis and Results Fig. 3.1: Methodology Flow Sequence 3.2 Research Methodology Project Planning Selection of hardware and software (ArcGIS) Selection of study area (Shah Alam) Selection of data Data Acquisition and Type of Data Acquired Spatial data 1) Land use map 2) Route map 3) Layer Trace existing bus stop location using handheld GPS (X,Y). Attribute name 1) Road name 2) Building 3) Population UiTMà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s NR student source from HEP UiTM. (X,Y) Data Preparation and Processing Creating different Themes Digitizing Scanning Digitizing Creating Attribute Tables Analysis and Result - - Compare existing bus stop location with the recommendation as requested safety reasons. Proposed new bus stops based on the location of resident for Non-Resident students. Compare the distance between two consecutive bus stops with the standard distance of travel by man by walk which is 400m. (source from MBSA) Fig 3.2: Flow Chart of Methodology Phase 1: Preliminary Study Project Planning 1. Selection of Study Area The city of Shah Alam has to be selected as study case area which covers section 2 until section 24. This study emphasized in the area with educational institutions especially UiTM since this study is focused on non-residents students. 2. Selection of Hardware and Software Hardware for scanning, digitizing, and processing has been determined. Software that will be used is ArcMap. This software helps in digitizing also analysis. 3. Selection of Data To select data, it needs to relate with problem statement. Data has been gathered from many of sources that will be explain in Data Collection. Phase 2 : Data Acquisition and Type of Data Acquired 1. Spatial Data Spatial data is data pertaining to the location and spatial dimensions of geographical entities which is in term of X and Y. Spatial data in this study has been gathered. It is route map and also land use map of city of Shah Alam. Another spatial data is layer trace of exiting bus stop location which acquired using handheld GPS. Route map and land use is gathered from MBSA Shah Alam. 2. Attribute Name In using ArcMap it is important to got the attribute and fill in the attribute table with data that relates with this study. In this study road name, building name and also population of UiTMà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s Non-Resident is needed as attribute. Road names and building names were gatherd from MBSA Shah Alam while population of UiTMà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s Non-Resident was gatherd from Non-Residens Unit, UiTM Shah Alam. Phase 3: Data Preparation and Processing Scanning The map for the area chosen for the study, here, the Shah Alam, Selangor map is obtained from the concerned authority which is MBSA. The map is then scanned and the scanned map is copied into the computer for digitizing purpose as base map. Digitizing Digitization is done manually using on-screen method. The errors in the original maps will be transferred and magnified when digitized using GIS. The scanned map is digitized with the help of the ArcMap software. The complete map of the Shah Alam, Selangor route is digitized carefully along with important intersections and some of the land mark features in the map. Creating different Themes After digitizing the study area, different themes like à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"bus stopsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ (point theme), à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"institutionalà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"commercialà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"mixed residentialà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ land uses (all polygon theme) and à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"bufferà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ (polygon theme) are created and the corresponding land uses were digitized from the land use data obtained from the MBSA and by ground inspection. The à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"bus stopsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ theme is created to indicate the location of the bus stops in the study area. The UiTM Non-Resident density is in point theme. The à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"land useà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ themes are created to represent the type of land uses in and around the bus stops. The buffer theme is created with multiple buffers around the bus stops; in this case three buffers have been created with a radius of 200m, 400m and 600m taking the bus stop as the center. Creating different Attributes Attribute tables for each theme is created. Besides the inbuilt fields in the attribute table, for the à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"bus stopsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ theme the other fields in the attribute table include the following: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Location of the bus stops à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Interval between two bus stops Similarly for à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“land useà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? themes will be added all types of land used and the weight of the particular land use. The thing goes the same for the theme study route (road) field like name of road and the length. For the theme study of UiTM Non-Resident student, the location of each student on which the their exact place to live. For the theme buffer the field with weight of that particular buffer is created. Overlaying The location of all the bus stops and the buffer around each bus stop from the students residential will be viewed along with study route abutted with different land uses. The themes will be created are overlaid one above to other in order to acquire a complete illustration of study area. Analysis and Result i. Compare existing bus stop location with the recommendation as requested safety reasons. ii. Proposed new bus stops based on the location of resident for Non-Resident students. iii. Compare the distance between two consecutive bus stops with the standard distance of travel by man by walk which is 400m. (Source from MBSA)